Cell Compounds
Describe how the polarity of the water molecule results in hydrogen bonding
Water contains a polar covalent bond (uneven sharing of electrons) so electrons are held closer to oxygen which makes it electronegative and hydrogen atoms become slightly electropositive
Describe the role of water as a solvent, temperature regulator, and lubricant
· Only substances dissolved in water can enter the cells
· Regulates temperature in living organisms – with high specific heat capacity
· Acts as a lubricant in joins – high surface tension
Distinguish among acids, bases and buffers and indicate the importance of pH to biological systems
Acids – 0-7pH is acidic, releases H+ ions Bases – 7-14 is basic, releases OH- ions (or take up H+ ions) Buffer – maintains pH by accepting or releasing H+ ions
If the pH changes, enzymes (proteins) denature (proteins’ shape is critical to its function).
Biological Molecules
Demonstrate a knowledge of synthesis and hydrolysis as applied to organic polymers
Hydrolysis – Breaking down of water, polymers are broken down into monomers.
Dehydration Synthesis – Monomers are linked to create polymers and water is produced. One molecule loses an H+ and the other loses an OH-
Distinguish among carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids with respect to chemical structure
Carbohydrates – Empirical Formula is 1:2:1, (CH2O)
Proteins – made up of amino acids – each amino acid has an amino group NH2 acid group COOH and an “R” group (variable group).
Lipids –
Fatty Acids – Long chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached, ending in an acid group (-COOH)
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides) – glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Phospholipids – glycerol, 2 fatty acids and phosphate group. Have a head (hydrophilic) and a tail (hydrophobic)
Steroids – multi-ringed structure derived from lipids.
Recognize the empirical formula of a carbohydrate
1:2:1
Differentiate among monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
M – Contain one (sugar) monosaccharide unit – simple sugar
D – Contain 2 (sugar) monosaccharide units – simple sugar
P – Contains more than 2 (sugar) monosaccharide units – complex carbohydrate
Differentiate among starch, cellulose and glycogen
Starch – short term energy for humans – fairly straight chains of glucose
Cellulose (fiber) – energy for plants – cannot be broken down by humans
Glycogen – longer term energy for humans – highly branched chains of glucose
List the main functions of carbohydrates
Provides energy and regulation of blood glucose
Breakdown of fatty acids
Dietary fiber
Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fats in terms of molecular structure
Saturated fats - don’t have double bonds, solid at room temp. (Butter, lard)
Unsaturated fats – have double bonds between carbons, liquid at room temp. (Vegetable oil)
Describe the location and explain the importance of the following in the human body: neutral fats, steroids and phospholipids
Neutral fats – stores nutrients and protein in body (thigh and torso area)
Steroids – chemical messengers and form important hormones (found in every cell of body)
Phospholipids – forms cell membrane (located in all membranes of the cell)
Draw a generalized amino acid and identify the amino, acid and R groups
Differentiate among the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins
Primary – sequence of amino acids (AA) joined in a line
Secondary – spiral of alpha helix shape caused by H-bonds forming between AA’s
Tertiary – Ionic, covalent and H-bonding between R-groups causes the alpha helix to fold into irregular shape.
Quaternary – specific arrangement of 2 or more polypeptide chains. (Hemoglobin – carries O2 throughout the blood)
List the major functions of proteins
Structure – elastic and collagen in cartilage and bone
Hormones – chemical messengers in body
Enzymes – biochemical catalysts that speed up reactions
Transport – protein channels
Immunity – recognize and fight invaders
Relate the general structure of the ATP molecule to its role as “energy currency”
CTM
Chemical work – reactions within cell
Transport work – ion transport across cell membrane
Mechanical work – muscle contraction
Composed of 5-carbon sugar ribose and a base called adenine and three phosphate groups
· Two phosphate bonds are unstable and easily broken. Special enzymes remove a phosphate molecule from ATP when energy is needed because when the breakdown occurs, energy is released. Energy can be used for CTM.
Cell Structure
Cell membrane – provides protection, import & export endo/exocytosis
Nucleolus where RNA is synthesized produces ribosomes
Nucleus controls all cell activities, contains RNA, DNA and proteins
Ribosome site of protein production, reads RNA code, translates into amino acid sequence - protein, made of rRNA and protein
Vesicle carries dissolved foods and wastes from one part of cell to others, membrane bound sac, formed from pinching off of membrane of ER, Golgi body, and cell membrane
Cytoskeleton provided internal skeleton/framework for a cell, movement of vesicles and organelles, protein filaments and microtubules
Smooth ER the site of fat synthesis, package proteins for transport within cell network of tubules – extension of nuclear membranes, lack ribosomes
Mitochondria cells powerhouse, provides ATP energy, matrix and cristae
Vacuole stores dissolved foods and wastes, membrane mound sac, larger than vesicles
Cytoplasm material that surrounds organelles
Lysosome, garbage disposal, breakdown bacteria entering cell, membrane bound sacs, package of digestive enzymes
Centrioles helps chromosome separate during cell division
Nuclear envelope – protection of nuclear contents, allows communication with cell via RNA, double membrane, contains nuclear pores
Chromosomes – genetic blueprint in bases, cell division, RNA transcription, double stranded DNA molecules, found in nucleus
Identify the functional interrelationships of cell structures
· Chromosomes contain the DNA code for proteins.
· Ribosomes or rough endoplasmic reticulum are sites of protein production.
· Endoplasmic reticulum temporarily stores proteins coded by the DNA of the chromosome.
· Vesicles transport proteins to Golgi bodies.
· Golgi bodies receive proteins from vesicles and repackage these proteins into new vesicles.
· The proteins in these new vesicles are either exported (by fusing with the cell membrane) or used within the cell as a lysosome.
Identify the cell structures in diagrams and electron micrographs
1 - Nucleolus
2 - Nucleus
3 - Ribosome
4 - Vesicle
5 - Rough endoplasmic reticulum
6 - Golgi apparatus
7 - Cytoskeleton
8 - Smooth er
9 - Mitochondria
10 - Vacuole
11 - Cytoplasm
12 - Lysosome
13 - Centrioles
Name the four bases in DNA and describe the structure of DNA using the following terms: nucleotide, complementary base pairing, double helix, hydrogen bonding
Four bases: cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine
DNA is made up of millions of base pairs, containing a variation of four different bases connecting to each other two at a time (C and G) (A and T) through complementary base pairing. The bases are joined to each other by hydrogen bonding and are located in the middle of a double helix made up of phosphate and sugar (deoxyribose). One nucleotide consists of a single sugar, phosphate and base.
1) The two strands of the parent DNA unwind (helicase) and unzip (weak hydrogen bonds broken between the bases).
2) New complementary nucleotides, always present in the nucleus, move into the appropriate place according to complementary base pairing.
3) The enzyme DNA polymerase joins the complementary nucleotides so that the new DNA molecule is again double stranded.
Define recombinant DNA
DNA that has been genetically engineered by splicing genes or DNA from two different sources or species together to form new genetic material.
Describe three uses for recombinant DNA
· treating diseases (injecting virus that has the DNA to reproduce bone cells into bones to treat bone marrow disease)
· reproduce artificial organs (as in donor organs that are made in animals such as pigs with human DNA, it's still experimental)
· mass produce medical treatments (as in bacteria produced insulin when the insulin gene is spliced into the bacteria)
Compare and contrast the general structure composition of DNA and RNA
| | DNA | RNA |
| Sugar | Deoxyribose | Ribose |
| Bases | Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine | Adenine Uracil Cytosine Guanine |
| Strands | Double stranded with base pairing | Single stranded |
| Helix | Yes | No |
No comments:
Post a Comment